I. DUTCH LEARNING COMPARED WITH CHINESE LEARNING

It is really surprising that "Dutch learning" has gained such popularity lately.  Far-sighted intellectuals study it with enthusiasm while the ignorant praise it in grandly glowing terms.

Dr. Ogata's note: About 1765.

This pursuit of Dutch learning was casually started by us - very few of us - about fifty years ago.  We never expected that it would come into such a great vogue.

The way Chinese learning was begun and promoted was quite different.  In old Japan, envoys were sent to Tang China (618-906), and some great Buddhist monks were sent there to pursue their studies under the direct tutelage of Chinese scholars.  On coming back, these men were commissioned to educate the Japanese, high and low, in Chinese learning.  It was natural, therefore, that the Chinese learning was gradually diffused among the people.

Nothing like this happened with Dutch learning.  Yet, it has come into such popularity which makes me wonder what made it so.  Was it because in medicine, teaching was first of all practical and it could be followed easily?  Or, was it because some old foxes after fame or gain took advantage of the curiosity of the masses who considered Dutch medicine as a new, exotic and mysterious cure?

II. NATIONAL ISOLATION.  SURGERY IN SOUTH OUTLANDERS' STYLE.  SURGERY IN DUTCH STYLE.

Let us consider here how the Japanese contact with outsiders has changed since early times.  Western ships began to visit the extreme western part of Japan about the Tenshō (1573-1592) and the Keichō Eras (1596-1615).  Their avowed purpose was trading with Japan, but in fact they had an ulterior object and caused all sorts of trouble.

After the establishment of the Tokugawa government (1603), all trades with Westerners came to be forbidden.  This is a historical fact we all know about.  The direct cause for this drastic measure, that is, the strict ban on heretical Christianity, is alien to me, and I have nothing to say about it.  But I am quite positive in stating that some of the surgical knowledge, which the Japanese acquired from the doctors aboard the foreign ships coming to Japan in those days, is still with us as useful techniques in healing.  These are designated as surgery in "south outlanders' style (nanban-ryū)."

Dr. Ogata's note: Forbidden in 1616, that is, the 2nd year of Genna Era.

In spite of the general ban on Western ships visiting Japan, the Dutch were allowed to keep on coming to Hirado, Hizen province, as they were not considered "conspirators."  Thirty-three years later, "south outlanders" who had been in Dejima of Nagasaki were expelled to allow the Dutch to reside there.  Ever since, Dutch ships have made it a rule to drop anchor at Nagasaki every year.  It is reported that on board the ships which visited there, there was not a small number of doctors who were instrumental in initiating the Japanese into the knowledge of surgical operations.  The medical art thus transmitted was called the "surgery in Dutch Style."  Needless to say, the Japanese doctors did not acquire it by reading Dutch books, but by watching what the Dutch performed, and taking notes on their prescriptions.  Since many of the drugs they applied were not available in Japan, some substitutes were used.

III. VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF THE 'SURGERY IN DUTCH STYLE'. NISHI SCHOOL. KURISAKI SCHOOL. KATSURAGAWA SCHOOL. CASPER SCHOOL.

There appeared about that time, a surgical family which proclaimed themselves "Nishi School."  Its initiator was an interpreter, Kichibei Nishi.  He was well versed in nanban (Portuguese-Spanish) technique and served the public as a surgeon.  After the Portuguese and the Spanish boats were debarred from Japanese ports, he became a Dutch interpreter and studied Dutch surgery too.  He described himself as the "Doctor of Double Accomplishments, Nanban and Dutch," and the people named his technique Nishi-school of surgery.  Since a person like him was rare, he became very famous.  Later, he was appointed an official doctor of the Shogunate, and became Genpo Sensei (Doctor Genpo).  His son, Muneharu, being sickly, died young, and the family became extinct.  This family, however, is the one under whose tutelage my ancestor, Hosen, studied medicine.

Doctor Gentetsu, grandfather of the present Mr. Gentetsu, was also later appointed an official doctor of the Shogunate.  He is said to have been related to Doctor Genpo's niece.

Really, it was because of Doctor Genpo's initial advocacy for Western medicine that it came to be recognized among official circles.  This was indeed the beginning of Dutch surgery being introduced into the Shogun's household.

There was another called the Kurisaki School and its founder is said to have been of Nanban blood.  When Christianity was forbidden, the Nanban ships were also denied entry to Japanese ports.  Before the enforcement of this interdiction, the Westerners lived among the Japanese at Hirado and Nagasaki, some of them marrying Japanese women and having children by them.  Later, these mixed-blooded people were scrupulously hunted and were all expelled.

Among these people, however, there was one called Kurisaki with the first name of "Dō."  This person, though he was sent to his father's land and brought up there, was allowed to come back to Japan for the reason that he did not embrace Christianity but studied medicine only.  He lived in Nagasaki thereafter.  He excelled in surgery and became well known.  People called his medicine the "Narasaki School."  His first name is said to be a derivation from the Dutch word "dauw" meaning dew in English.  Later, the two Chinese characters "dō" and "u" are said to have been applied to it.  I am not positive, if Kurisaki, the Shogun's official doctor at present, is a direct descendant of this person, or if he is of a different Kurisaki family.

Besides the two schools mentioned above, there were so-called "Yoshida School" and "Narabayashi School."  They were originated by Dutch interpreters.  They each studied Dutch surgery and established their own schools.

Now, I take up the Katsuragawa family.  The head of the family, five generations back from the present, was Hochiku who was appointed an official surgeon by the feudal lord of Kōfu before the lord was made the Sixth Shōgun, Ienobu.  This Hochiku was a disciple of Hoan Arashiyama, physician to the Lord of Hirado.  This Hoan is said to have been sent by his feudal lord to the resident surgeon of the Dutch station in Dejima for personal tutelage.

Dr. Ogata's note: Later, this feudal lord became Sixth Shōgun, 1662-1712.

This house of Katsuragawa seems to have been on intimate terms with the Dutch for some special reason ever since they began to come to Hirado.  Perhaps the ban on the association with foreigners was not so strict in those days.  Hochiku became a disciple very young and, it is said, he often accompanied his master to Dejima.  His chief interest was to learn and transmit the art of Arashiyama School.  The Dutch surgeons resident in Dejima at the time and taught Hoan were, I am told, Daniel Busch and Hermanus Katz.

The Katsuragawas are from Yamato province.  Their family name was originally Morishima.  They changed it into "Katsuragawa" for the reason that they were to draw in the stream of knowledge from the Arashiyama School.  Hence, people called them "Katsuragawa School."  This story was told to me by Hosan, grandfather of the present Katsuragawa, who was very close to me when I was young.

Translator's note: The river Katsura runs through beautiful Mt. Arashiyama, hence these two are often geographically and poetically associated.

Since olden days, there had been the "Casper School" surgery.  A Dutch ship in distress drifted into Yamada Bay of Nanbu province in 1643 (the 20th year of Kan-ei Era).  Among some of the crew, who were summoned to Edo, there was a surgeon named Casper so-and-so.  The Shogunate kept him for about four years in Edo and had him teach surgical art to the Japanese.  Some of these students are said to have been sent to Nagasaki later.  Around the Shōho Era (1644-1648), therefore, there existed both in Edo and Nagasaki the surgery originally derived from Casper.  Though not clear in detail, this may be the beginning of what later came to be designated the "Casper School."  Or, it may be that there was another surgeon called Casper to whom the beginning of Casper School should be attributed.

In addition to the above, there was another group in Nagasaki called "Yoshio School," which acquired knowledge for healing from a Dutchman who visited Japan later on.

Each of these schools had what they treasured as "Densho (instructions special to the school)."  However, examining these "Densho," we find them describing merely such primitive treatments as plaster or ointment applications.  Imperfect as they were, they were far better than those that had been imported from China, or those handed down in Japan since ancient times.

While looking over these instructions, I found one titled The Book on Wounds (Kinsō-no-sho) of the Narabayashi School.  In it, it is stated that there is an important thing, "seinun," in the human body, which is vitally related to life.  This is apparently the "zenuw" in Dutch, and what we understand now as "nervous tissues."  Though this is just a little bit of knowledge, still this is probably the first book which introduced an information from Dutch medical science.

IV. NATIONAL ISOLATION. INTERPRETERS' NEW HORIZON.

Dr. Ogata's note: According to a historical record, there was no surgeon called Casper among the crew of the ship here referred to.  As Genpaku writes rather dubiously of the presented identification of Casper, there was in fact another man called Dr. Casper Schaemburger who spent about eleven months in Edo in 1650 (the 3rd year of Keian Era) and from whom the word "Casper School" is considered to have emanated.

Various troubles occurred in relation to the foreigners at the beginning of the Tokugawa regime which resulted in the enforcement of a strict ban on anything from the West.  Even the language of Holland which was allowed to trade with Japan was forbidden for both reading and writing.  Thus all that the interpreters could do was to take notes in kana of what the Dutch said, or to learn it by heart, so as to perform their duties as interpreters.  Such were the conditions under which interpreters had to manage in the past.  Rigorously circumscribed, none of them dared to express their desire to study written Dutch.

The Japanese syllabary.

Anything in this world, however, seems to work smoothly for adjustment when the time is opportune.  In the reign (1716-1745) of Shōgun Yoshimune, the 8th Shōgun (1684-1751), the three Dutch interpreters including Zenzaburō Nishi, Kōzaemon Yoshio and one more whose name I have forgotten, consulted together.  They thought: "It is our duty to manage anything related to foreigners.  It is, however, very difficult to take care of involved business, as we have to depend on a few memorized words with no knowledge of written Dutch.  It is just a make-shift operation that we are doing.  We three at least ought to be familiar with the Dutch written language.  How would it be to ask the authorities to permit us the privilege of reading Dutch books, so that we will get acquainted with their ways of life and manage our duties more effectively.  Bound by the present conditions, we can hardly see through a thing, say, when we are deceived."  Coming to an agreement, they presented a petition for the study of the Dutch language.  It was immediately granted as their desire was quite reasonable.  This was the first time that the study of the "language written sideways" was official approved in Japan after a century since the Dutch first set foot ashore on the land.

Rejoicing in the permission for studying written Dutch, Zensaburō Nishi and others borrowed a dictionary, Konstwoorden Boek from a Dutchman, and are said to have made three copies of it by hand.  Being impressed by their earnestness, the Dutchman is said to have presented the book to them.

V. SHŌGUN YOSHIMUNE AND A DUTCH BOOK. THE STUDY OF THE DUTCH LANGUAGE BY GENJŌ NORO AND BUNZŌ AOKI.

The Shōgun naturally heard of these facts and ordered a Dutch book to be submitted to him as he had never seen one before.  An illustrated book - we are not aware what it was - was offered for his inspection.  He was struck by the pictures that were exquisitely done, and felt that, judging by them, the explanations for them must needs be very useful if they could be read through.  He mentioned that some scholars in Edo also ought to study the Dutch language, and the two persons - Genjō Noro, an official doctor and Bunzō Aoki, a Confucianist - were ordered to study the Dutch language.

Dr. Ogata's note: Probably the 8th Shōgun Yoshimune.

These two gentlemen began studying.  Their teachers were the interpreters who came to Edo once every spring, attending on the Dutchmen who visited the Shōgun to pay their annual respects to him.  While they were in Edo, Noro and Aoki sacrificed their busy hours to learn the Dutch language from them.  After several years' effort, however, all they had learned were to write some simple nouns such as "zon (sun)," "maan (moon)," "sterre (star)," "hemel (heaven)," "aard (earth)," "mensch (man)," "draak (dragon)," "tiiger (tiger)," "pruimeboom (plum)," and "bamboes (bamboo)," besides the 25 alphabet letters.  However that may be, this was the beginning of the study of the Dutch language in Edo.

FOOTNOTES

Dr. Ogata's note: The book inspected by the Shōgun seems to have been Jan Jonstons (1603-1675): Nauwkeurige Beschryving van de Natuur der Viervoetige Dieren, Vissen en Bloedlooze Water-Dieren, Vogelen, Kronkel-Dieren, Slangen en Draken, Amsterdam, 1660.  Besides, Rembartus Dodonaeus (1517-1585): Cruydt-Boeck, Antwerp, 1644, might have been presented.